Glossar

A liturgical book containing the chants of the Mass, psalms, and hymns. First compiled in the 11th century, it developed in the 12th century into what would later become the Book of Hours—a volume including both Latin and vernacular texts, often richly illuminated. The tradition of the antiphonary reached its peak in the 15th century. During the late Middle Ages and early modern period, it became the most popular type of book, and to this day, it remains the most commonly preserved form of illuminated manuscript.

The final book of the New Testament, also known as the Revelation of St John. It prophetically unveils the course of the world and its ultimate end, revealing visions of the Last Judgement, cosmic conflict, and the triumph of divine justice.

Illuminated Mozarabic manuscripts dating from the 10th to the 12th century, containing commentaries on the Apocalypse. These works are based on the writings of the monk Beatus of Liébana, who composed his influential Commentary on the Apocalypse in the 8th century. The Beatus manuscripts are renowned for their vivid, stylised illustrations, which stand as remarkable examples of early medieval Spanish book art.

(Latin bestia = wild animal). An encyclopaedia of animals, describing both real creatures and mythical beasts. Their characteristics and behaviours are interpreted in a Christological and moral sense, intended to serve as examples or warnings for humankind.

A commented Bible text accompanied by numerous illustrations, most often presented in medallion form as typological image pairs. Typically, eight medallions appear on a single page, arranged in columns alongside the corresponding text. These image cycles, intended for lay audiences, were created in 13th-century France. The stained glass windows of the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris served as a key inspiration.

The Bible of the Poor, composed anonymously in the 13th century, written in Latin and widely popular in the late Middle Ages. It presents typological parallels between the Old and New Testaments, designed for lay use. Despite its name, it was not intended for the poor—who, if literate at all, would not have been able to read Latin—but rather for the broader non-clerical audience.

A prayer book developed from the Psalter, intended for private devotion by laypeople. It typically contains a calendar, various prayers, the Penitential Psalms, and the Suffrages of the Saints. Books of Hours were often richly illuminated, serving both religious purposes and as a display of wealth and social status.

A personalized devotional manuscript intended for lay use. Its core typically comprises a selection of Psalms, complemented by hymns, orations, and various prayers. It is more extensive than a Psalter, yet less comprehensive than a full Breviary or complete Book of Hours.

It forms the frame of a miniature or text page and adorns it with ornaments or figures.

Originating in the 12th century, it contains a collection of chants, prayers, and texts for the religious rites associated with the Mass. It was intended solely for clergy and varies according to region and religious order.

(from Latin calendarium or calendae = the first day of the ancient Roman month). Many liturgical manuscripts include calendars listing the feast days of saints and other significant dates of the ecclesiastical year.

(from Greek kánon = rule). Introduced in Gospel books from the 4th century onward, Canon Tables divide each Gospel into small chapters and present them in ten parallel tables. This system allows for an easy comparison of passages—highlighting either unique content or parallels shared among the four Gospels.

A fully ornamental page devoid of text, initials, or figurative imagery. This decorative feature is particularly characteristic of Insular manuscripts.

A technique of metalworking adopted from goldsmithing into manuscript illumination. The illuminator uses patterned punches to emboss designs into the gold leaf, often adding fine lines or ridges before the gold hardens. This chiseling (chasing) breaks up the uniform reflection of light on the metal surface, creating an interplay of light and shadow that gives the illusion of a solid, richly textured gold background.

(from the Greek chronos meaning time). A factual account of historical events arranged in chronological order.

(Latin cauda meaning tree trunk, caudex meaning wooden block). The term originates from wax-coated wooden tablets used in antiquity. A codex consists of several quires of parchment leaves, which are sewn and bound together.

The study of the physical structure, origin, and composition of ancient books and manuscripts. Often referred to as the "archaeology of the book," it provides insights into how these works were created, assembled, and used.

(from Greek kolophōn = "finishing stroke"). A closing note in a manuscript that provides information about the scribe, as well as details concerning the title, place, and sometimes the date of completion.

The scribe responsible for transcribing a manuscript by hand.

(from the Greek díptychos meaning double-folded). A small panel made of ivory, wood, or metal, hinged in the middle so it can be folded shut. The inner surfaces were coated with wax to serve as a writing surface. The luxury version of the tabulae ceratae was popular in late antiquity as a gift for consuls and was reused or copied as book covers during the Middle Ages.

(from the French drôle, meaning amusing, comical, or funny). A whimsical and grotesque depiction of hybrid creatures, humans, animals, and mythical beasts, artistically incorporated into the marginal decorations of Gothic manuscripts. Especially in their early use, drolleries often carried satirical or moral meanings.

A liturgical book containing the complete texts of the four Gospels. In the Middle Ages, the evangelary was regarded in the Mass as the living Word of Christ, which is why many were richly decorated and lavishly adorned.

A liturgical book containing the Gospel readings in full, arranged according to the sequence of the liturgical year for use in Mass (pericopes).

(from the Latin ‘exsultet’ meaning ‘let it rejoice’). A hymn of praise for the Easter candle. It is preserved on a scroll containing the chants for the Easter celebration.

(Latin fac simile = make alike). Refers to the reproduction of a manuscript that faithfully and as accurately as possible represents the original. All available means are employed to achieve this precise replication.

Refers to the numbering of individual leaves, usually on the right-hand page at the top. Subsequent pages are abbreviated as fol.

(Latin folium = leaf). In codicology, this term refers to a single leaf of parchment or paper.

A remnant or piece. An artwork left incomplete for posterity.

(from Latin/French frontispice = title page). The decorative page facing the title page, usually placed before the main text (often depicting the author).

Extremely thin sheets of hammered gold, produced in the Middle Ages by specialised craftsmen known as goldbeaters, who used rounded hammers to achieve the delicate thickness. The gold leaf was applied to a prepared surface using a binding agent—typically a mixture of egg white and bolus (a fine red clay)—and was often polished afterwards to achieve a lustrous finish.

These fine gold sheets were used by manuscript illuminators, panel painters, and bookbinders alike. The craft of goldbeating is first documented in Nuremberg in 1373. It was practised exclusively in major trading cities and, in some regions, even classified as a restricted trade.

(from Latin gradus = step). A liturgical book containing all the choral chants of the Mass.

(from French gris = grey). A painting technique executed entirely in shades of grey, relying solely on the modulation of light and shadow to create depth and form.

The prohibition of images, specifically the banning of religious depictions out of fear of idolatry. Most notably enforced in Byzantium between 724 and 843.

A manuscript painter or artist specializing in the decoration of books, particularly through miniature paintings, initials, and ornamental designs.

(from Latin illustratio = illumination). A painting, drawing, or graphic work created in direct reference to a text or book, intended to complement or visually interpret its content.

(from Latin incipit = "it begins"). The opening words of a manuscript, traditionally providing information about the title, author, and subject matter. Incipits are often highlighted either on a dedicated decorative page or as an ornamental element within the text itself.

(from Latin initialis = standing at the beginning). An enlarged and often decorated first letter marking the beginning of a section of text.

When a line was not fully written out to the margin, ornamental designs were often added to fill the remaining space.

In the late Middle Ages, simple manuscripts were often decorated with pen drawings and lightly washed colors (glazing technique), while more prestigious codices featured opaque color painting. In luxury manuscripts, these richly colored illustrations were frequently enhanced with gold backgrounds, emphasizing their opulence and ceremonial value.

A depiction of Christ enthroned within a mandorla (an almond-shaped aureole), surrounded by the symbols or figures of the Four Evangelists.

(from Latin [littera] maiuscula = somewhat larger letter). Uppercase letters written within a two-line system, characterized by the absence of ascenders and descenders.

(from Italian mandorla = almond). An art historical term referring to an almond-shaped aureole that surrounds the entire figure of Christ or the Virgin Mary, symbolizing divine glory and transcendence.

(derived from Latin manu scriptum = written by hand). In codicology and library science, the term refers to a handwritten book, as opposed to a printed one.

(from Latin minium, meaning red lead or vermilion). Originally, the term referred exclusively to red decorative elements in manuscripts. In a broader sense, it now denotes all independent figurative paintings within manuscripts, whether framed or unframed.

(from Latin [littera] minuscula = smaller letter). Lowercase letters written within a four-line system, often featuring ascenders and descenders.

(from Medieval Latin missale = Mass book). A liturgical book containing both the fixed and variable texts of the Mass, including readings, prayers, and other rites.

A group of Ibero-Romance dialects spoken in the Iberian Peninsula before and during the Christian Reconquista, continuing into the 11th and 12th centuries. These dialects were used by Christians living under Muslim rule.

Refers to any form of decorative representation that is independent and bears no direct relation to the content or subject matter.

An ancient writing material made from the pith of the papyrus plant, processed into sheets for writing. It was widely used until the 2nd century, when it was gradually replaced by parchment.

Derived from the name of the ancient city Pergamon in Asia Minor, a historical center for parchment production and export. From the 2nd century onward, parchment—made from treated animal skins—became the common writing material, valued for its durability and ability to be written on both sides throughout the Middle Ages. By the 15th century, it was largely supplanted by paper.

As early as the 6th century, certain psalms were grouped as penitential psalms, closely associated with the atonement of the seven deadly sins. These songs are attributed to King David, expressing trust in God, hope for forgiveness, and sincere repentance.

A passage or section from the Gospels that is read aloud during the Mass.

(from Greek psalterion = a stringed instrument similar to a zither). Manuscripts containing the 150 Psalms. Originally a collection of the religious songs of ancient Israel, the Psalter reached its present form around 100 AD. From the late 12th century, Psalters were increasingly used for private devotion, and lavishly decorated copies became popular wedding gifts in the 13th century. By the 14th century, Psalters were gradually supplanted by the Book of Hours.

(from Latin rotulus = roll). An ancient book format made of papyrus, occasionally still in use during the Middle Ages. In manuscript illumination, rotuli are often depicted in portraits of authors, Evangelists, and scribes.

(from Latin rubricatus = written in red ink). Text passages highlighted in cinnabar red (vermilion) or occasionally gold ink, commonly used for titles, headings, chapter openings, and liturgical instructions.

A liturgical book containing all the prayers recited by the celebrant during Mass and the administration of the sacraments. It includes two categories of texts: the fixed parts of the Mass and the variable prayers specific to each day of the liturgical year. The Sacramentary was later incorporated into the Missal and eventually disappeared as an independent book form.

The medieval writing room of a monastery, where manuscripts were copied, decorated, and compiled.

The oldest and most significant translation of the Old Testament into Greek.

(from Medieval Latin suffragium = intercession). An important component of the Book of Hours, consisting of prayers addressed to selected saints, asking them to intercede on behalf of the person praying. These prayers are often accompanied by a miniature depicting the respective saint.

Based on the Tablet of Cebes, a Greek ethical dialogue from the 1st century AD. Rediscovered in the late 14th century, it was widely translated, illustrated, and circulated throughout Europe. The Tabula Cebetis presents an allegorical depiction of the human journey toward a virtuous and happier life.

(from Latin, meaning “waxed tablet”). These were the most common writing surfaces in antiquity and the Middle Ages. Typically consisting of two or three wooden tablets bound together and filled with wax, they could be closed like a book. Writing was done with a stylus, whose pointed end inscribed the wax, while the flat end was used to erase the writing.

(from Latin textura = fabric or weave). A style of script characterized by tightly spaced, elongated, and angular letters. Developed in the 12th century, it spread throughout much of Europe (except southern France and Italy) during the 13th century, from northern France to England. This writing style produced a dense, dark appearance with a grid-like pattern, giving the impression of a woven texture of letters.

(955–991) Niece of the Byzantine Emperor John I Tzimiskes, she became co-empress of the Holy Roman Empire as the wife of Emperor Otto II. Theophanu was one of the most influential female rulers of the medieval period.

A visual representation depicting the genealogy of Christ, illustrating His descent from Jesse, the father of King David, as described in biblical tradition.

(from French, meaning “deceive the eye”). Originating in the 18th century, the term describes images or visual elements designed to trick the viewer’s eye through illusionistic realism. To blur the line between reality and appearance, artists employed meticulous detail, mastery of perspective, accurate depiction of form and shadow, and skillful use of overlapping elements.

(from Greek typos = form, figure; lógos = discourse). A method of interpretation in which the Old Testament is understood through the lens of the New Testament. Persons, actions, and events (types) in the Old Testament are seen as prefigurations or foreshadowings of the redemptive work of Jesus Christ (antitypes).

(from Latin littera uncialis = inch-sized letter). A script composed of rounded majuscule (uppercase) letters, developed in the 4th century. It later evolved into a broader four-line script incorporating minuscules. Uncial is among the most common styles used for decorative initials in manuscripts.

(from Latin vulgo = commonly known, widespread, public). Since the late Middle Ages, this term refers to the Latin version of the Bible attributed to Saint Jerome, who completed its translation from the original Greek and Hebrew texts around 405/406 AD.